Egyptology | Chapter 7: Egyptian Temples from the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods (1)
Ptolemaic and Roman Egyptian Temples
Since the Egyptian temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods represent a continuation of the temples of the gods from the New Kingdom in terms of plan and functional role, even if they differed in certain details, I have chosen to present some of these temples.
Temple of Dendera
Dendera is located on the west bank of the Nile River, approximately 5 km northwest of the city of Qena. In ancient Egyptian texts it was known as "Iunet" (or "Tanteret"), meaning "the goddess," in reference to the goddess Hathor, the lady of the temple. It became "Tentyris" in Greek and "Dendera" in Arabic. It was the capital of the sixth nome of Upper Egypt.
Dendera is mentioned in ancient Egyptian mythology as the scene of one of the battles fought between Horus, the god of Edfu (husband of Hathor, goddess of Dendera), and Seth, the god of evil, who had killed Osiris, the father of Horus.
The Dendera complex includes the main temple dedicated to the goddess Hathor, together with her husband Horus Behdety and their son Horus-Ihy. There is also an enclosure wall built of mud brick, two mammisi (birth houses), the first of which was begun under King Nectanebo I and continued by several Ptolemaic kings, while the second was built under Emperor Augustus. In addition there is a structure that was later converted into a church, a sanatorium for healing, a temple of the goddess Isis, the sacred lake, and a Nilometer.
Some texts indicate that the earliest origins of this temple go back to the Old Kingdom, and that there was a temple built under King Khufu (4th Dynasty) and another under King Pepi I (6th Dynasty). There are also indications and evidence that certain kings of the New Kingdom contributed to the construction of the temple, among them Thutmose III, Thutmose IV, Ramesses II and Ramesses III.
The present temple was built under the later Ptolemaic kings, beginning with Ptolemy VII, then the eighth, tenth and eleventh.
On the exterior of the southern wall of the temple there is a scene depicting Queen Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion worshipping the temple triad and other deities. This is the only known representation of Queen Cleopatra on any Egyptian temple of the Greco-Roman period.
There are additions from the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. The gateway in the enclosure wall surrounding the temple dates to the reigns of Domitian, Nerva and Trajan.
The general plan of the temple follows the pattern of the Egyptian temple of the New Kingdom and is similar to the plans of temples built in the Greco-Roman period. It is surrounded by a massive mud-brick enclosure wall oriented north–south, measuring 290 metres in length and 280 metres in width. The enclosure contains the Domitian gateway already mentioned, which forms the entrance to the temple complex. This is followed by the great hypostyle hall, whose roof is supported by 24 columns crowned with the four-faced heads of the goddess Hathor. Half-walls known as intercolumnar screens connect the façade columns.
Among the most important scenes recorded on the walls of this hall are those on the ceiling: astronomical scenes representing the goddess Nut in the form of a woman, with the sky and its stars and constellations inscribed on her body. The walls are filled with numerous worship scenes bringing together kings and emperors with the gods. The shafts of the columns are also covered with many religious scenes.
After the great hypostyle hall comes the Hall of Appearances (or Festival Hall), which marks the actual beginning of the temple proper. On the sides of its entrance the various names of the goddess Hathor are inscribed, together with the names of the deities associated with her and the chapels dedicated to them. The roof of this hall is supported by six columns, and six chapels open onto it, three on each side. One of them is known as the "House of Silver" and was used for storing the precious ritual implements made of gold, silver and precious stones. The chamber opposite it on the left is known as the Laboratory, on whose walls many medical prescriptions and recipes are inscribed. The other chambers were devoted to different kinds of offerings. The walls of this hall contain a complete record of the successive stages of the temple-foundation ritual until the temple is presented to the goddess Hathor.
After the Hall of Appearances comes the Hall of Offerings, which contained altars on which offerings were presented to the deities depicted on its walls. To the right and left of this hall are two staircases leading up to the roof of the temple, where the Osirian chapels are located. Their walls contain the most complete scenes representing the death and resurrection of Osiris, and it was here that the ceremonies commemorating the resurrection of Osiris were performed.
After the Hall of Offerings comes what is known as the Vestibule (or Ante-chamber), a hall preceding the sanctuary. From it a door leads to the Chamber of Purification, which played a role in the celebrations of the New Year festival, the festival in which the statue of Hathor and the other deities was exposed to the rays of the sun so that the ritual of union with the solar disc could take place on the first day of the new year.
The sanctuary itself lies on the axis of the temple and is the most sacred place; only the king or the high priest was permitted to enter it. Around the sanctuary runs a corridor raised slightly above the floor level of the temple; it contains eleven chambers known as the "hidden chambers," such as the Chamber of the Throne of Re, the Chamber of Resurrection, the Chamber of Clothing, etc.
Among the most notable features of the temple are the chapel of the goddess Nut and the underground crypts (or corridors), which served as secret store-rooms for the ritual implements of the goddess Hathor and date to the reign of King Ptolemy XIII. On the roof of the temple are the Chapel of the Union of Hathor with the Solar Disc and the Chamber of the Celestial Zodiac, among others.
Temple of Esna
Esna is located on the west bank of the Nile River, approximately 50 km south of the city of Luxor. In Egyptian texts it was known as (Sni) or (SNI T3); it became (CNH) in Coptic and then Esna in Arabic.
In Ptolemaic sources the city was known as Latopolis, after a species of Nile fish (the Lates or Nile perch) that was worshipped in the city. The Temple of Esna was built for the worship of the god Khnum. A group of goddesses was also worshipped with him in this temple, including Neith, the goddess of Sais, and Tefnut and Menhit (both of whom were represented with the head of a lioness).
The city of Esna is known at least from the 18th Dynasty, particularly in the Annals of Thutmose III, where tribute paid by the city of Esna is mentioned.
It is believed that the present temple stands on the remains of a temple of the 18th Dynasty, since a cartouche bearing the name of King Thutmose III was found; it was then rebuilt in the Saite period.
Among the most prominent architectural elements that survive of this temple is the hypostyle hall containing 24 columns, which was built under the emperors Claudius and Vespasian and served as the façade of the temple.
The inscriptions recorded on the columns relate to certain festivals of Esna, such as the "Festival of Raising the Sky," the "Festival of the Potter's Wheel" (a reference to the creator-god Khnum), the conflict of Re with mankind, and the journey of the goddess Neith from Sais.
Construction of the temple began under King Ptolemy VI (181–145 BC), whose name appears on the western wall of the temple. On the exterior walls of the hypostyle hall appear the names of the Roman emperors Claudius, Vespasian, Antoninus Pius, Decius, Trajan, Hadrian, Caracalla and others.
The hypostyle hall contains a series of inscribed scenes of great importance for the religion and beliefs of this period. Some of them relate to the festivals of the god Khnum the creator and of the goddess Neith, who was also regarded as a creator-goddess; others relate to the celestial constellations.
The walls of the temple record the festivals celebrated throughout the year. As an example we may mention those that took place in one of the months of the winter season:
| Day | Festival / Event |
|---|---|
| Day 1 of the month | Festival of Ptah – Festival of Raising the Sky – Festival of Khnum and Re, the lords of Esna – union with the solar disc – appearance of the god Thoth in procession with the deities Shu, Tefnut and Khnum. |
| Days 10 and 11 | Appearance of Khnum in the Temple of Khnum – purification with water – burning of incense. |
In addition, the Temple of Esna is distinguished by the beauty of its composite column capitals, which combine plant and decorative elements.
Among the most important scenes recorded on the walls of this temple are the following:
1. Traditional offering scenes presented by the Ptolemaic kings and Roman emperors to the various deities.
2. The scene of hunting evil spirits, which shows a net containing birds, animals and fish being dragged by kings and gods and presented to the principal god of the temple, Khnum.
3. Astronomical scenes, the most important of which are the representation of the celestial zodiac and the depiction of 18 boats on each side of the hall ceiling; each boat represents ten days (i.e. 180 days on each side), their total representing the days of the year.
4. Representation of the four cardinal directions in the form of mythical creatures with four heads, four units and four wings.
5. The repeated representation in a long row of the god Sobek on one side and the god Khnum on the other.
6. The temple-foundation rituals.
7. The ritual of the king leaving his palace and entering the temple.
Temple of Edfu
Edfu is one of the cities of Aswan Governorate. Its name is derived from the ancient Egyptian word (Djeba), which became (Tba) and (Qba), then (Etbo) and (Atbo) in Coptic, and finally Edfu in Arabic. Edfu was the capital of the second nome of Upper Egypt and a centre for the worship of the triad Horus Behdety, Hathor and Horus-Sema-tawy. In Greek texts it was known as Apollinopolis Magna, after the god Apollo, whom the Greeks identified with the Egyptian god Horus.
The city of Edfu is famous for its temple, which is regarded as the most complete and finest of the Egyptian temples because its elements are largely intact and it is filled with a vast number of scenes and texts executed in a distinctive artistic style.
The earliest origins of this temple go back to the ancient Egyptian periods; remains dating to the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom and the Late Period have been found. Work on the present temple began in the tenth year of the reign of King Ptolemy III (c. 237 BC) and was completed in the tenth year of the reign of King Ptolemy IV (c. 212 BC). Additions were made by Ptolemy VII, Ptolemy XII and the Roman emperor Augustus. The construction of the temple and the execution of its scenes and texts took approximately 180 years.
The temple consists of the traditional elements of Egyptian temples of the Ptolemaic period. It begins with the pylon, followed by the open court whose three sides are lined with columns bearing plant capitals. After the open court comes the hypostyle hall whose roof is supported by 12 columns; its entrance is flanked by two statues of grey granite representing the god Horus Behdety in the form of a falcon.
This hall is followed by another hall whose roof is also supported by 12 columns and which contains, to the right and left of the entrance, two chambers: one served as a library for storing manuscripts, the other for storing ritual implements and vessels. These are followed by two vestibules: the first was called the "Hall of the Table" because it was used for presenting offerings, while the second was called the "Resting-place of the Gods." The temple ends with the sanctuary, which contains a granite naos that once held the statue of the god, with the base of the sacred bark in front of it. Twelve chambers surround the sanctuary; the walls of each record religious scenes and texts that explain its function. Some were used as store-rooms for ritual implements, others for cult purposes.
The walls of the temple, both inside and outside, are covered with dozens of scenes and texts of historical and religious importance, such as scenes of kings presenting offerings to the gods, traditional battle scenes, and the temple-foundation ritual.
There are also scenes representing the festival of the sacred marriage between Hathor, goddess of Dendera, and her husband Horus Behdety, god of Edfu. This festival was celebrated twice a year, once at Dendera and once at Edfu. On the northern wall of the first court is depicted the journey of the goddess Hathor from Dendera to Edfu and back.
Among the most important scenes recorded on the walls of this temple are those representing the myth of the conflict between Horus and Seth, the festival of the victory of Horus, and his coronation as ruler of the world, so that every king might rule in his name and ensure the transmission of the throne to his son after him, just as Horus inherited the throne of his father. The Temple of Edfu is unique in possessing these scenes, which have no parallel in any other temple.
Among the notable features of the Temple of Edfu are the Nilometer and a chapel of the goddess Nut. To the west of the main temple entrance lies the mammisi (birth house), which consists of a court and a chapel; its walls are covered with scenes narrating the birth of the divine child in the presence of the goddess Hathor, the god Khnum and other deities concerned with conception, birth and the care of childhood.
Temple of Kom Ombo
Kom Ombo is located approximately 45 km north of Aswan. The word "Kom" is the Arabic term applied to certain archaeological sites that, over time, took on the appearance of a mound; the plural forms are "Akwam" and "Kiman," as in Kom Ombo, Kom el-Shuqafa and Kiman Faris. It corresponds to the word "Tell" that was applied to many archaeological sites, such as Tell Atrib, Tell el-Amarna and Tell Basta, etc.
The region of Kom Ombo held great sanctity for the Egyptians, who believed that the goddess Tefnut visited this temple while Re accompanied her, and that she received the title "Lady of Ombos." The nome was called "the Great Throne," and the region was mythologically linked with the story of the conflict between the gods Seth and Horus. The word "Ombo" is a corruption of the Egyptian Nwbt ("the Golden One"), which became Ombos in Greek. Although the fame of Kom Ombo rests on its Ptolemaic-Roman remains, especially the temple, the area was known from prehistoric times; early man lived on its soil, and many cemeteries from that period and later periods, as well as numerous remains from the Pharaonic period, have been found.
The Temple of Kom Ombo stands on the east bank of the Nile in a region where the god Sobek, symbolised by the crocodile, was worshipped. The temple was dedicated (unusually for Egyptian temples) to two gods: Sobek-Re and Hor-Wer (Horus the Elder). Sandstone blocks quarried from the nearby Gebel el-Silsila were used in its construction. It is clear that Kom Ombo reached the height of its prosperity in the Ptolemaic period, when it served as a training centre for elephants brought from Africa for the Ptolemaic army. It also lay on the route between the gold mines of the Eastern Desert and the caravan road leading to Nubia. The Temple of Kom Ombo is unique among Egyptian temples in that it contains two temples within a single enclosure, and it is the only temple in which two triads were worshipped.
The architectural elements of the temple were completed under King Ptolemy VI (180–145 BC) and the kings Ptolemy VII and XI; numerous additions were made in later periods under the Roman emperors. The temple contains a foundation text above the lintel of the western gateway that reads: "In honour of King Ptolemy and Queen Cleopatra his sister, the Philopator gods, and their children, and the infantry and cavalry soldiers and others. This temple was dedicated to the god Horus the Elder and the god Apollo and the other gods who are worshipped with him."
The front façade of the temple, including the pylon, suffered a collapse that caused its blocks to fall into the Nile, but the Antiquities Service was able to halt further collapse in 1893. The basic elements of the temple consist of the pylon (whose elements have been lost), a court, two hypostyle halls (inner and outer), three vestibules, and two sanctuaries surrounded by a number of small chambers. Since the temple was dedicated to two gods, as already mentioned, the eastern side was allotted to the god Sobek-Re, his wife Hathor and their son Khonsu-Horus, while the western side was allotted to the god Hor-Wer, his wife Tasenetnofret and their son Panebtawy.
The temple faces the Nile. The visitor enters from the western side and proceeds to the front court, where the birth house stands in the western corner; it was built under Ptolemy VIII (Euergetes II) and has suffered considerable destruction.
Parts of the columns still remain in the front court and retain traces of colour showing Emperor Tiberius presenting offerings to Hor-Wer and Sobek. The hypostyle hall is distinguished by the beauty of its columns, especially the capitals that take the forms of palm fronds, papyrus and other composite elements. On the north-eastern wall is a scene representing Ptolemy IX performing certain ceremonies of the temple-foundation ritual before the god Horus the Elder.
The inner hypostyle hall is smaller than the first and its columns are lower. Among the most important scenes on the left (western) side of the hall is one showing the king preceded by six standards, after which the gods Thoth and Horus Behdety purify him.
On the northern wall is a scene of the king presenting offerings that include birds, wine, incense and linen to the god Hor-Wer. As for the three vestibules, they have been completely destroyed, as have the sanctuaries.
The small chambers located behind the inner corridor contain some unfinished inscriptions. The scenes of the outer corridor show Roman emperors (such as Caracalla and Geta) presenting offerings to the gods.
On the northern exterior wall is a representation of certain surgical instruments; this is one of the most famous scenes in the temple. On the eastern side of the temple, outside the outer corridor, is a chapel of Hathor consisting of two chambers.
The Temple of Kom Ombo was one of the temples to which people made pilgrimage in the hope of being healed of diseases by the god. They spent the night in the temple so that they might be treated by the priests of the god Horus, who bore the title "the skilled physician." Visitors recorded their visits in the form of graffiti inscribed on the temple walls, wrote their names in Greek, left footprints on the temple floor, and practised certain board games such as the game of "dama," which they also marked on the floor. They also inscribed scenes of boats, trees and other subjects. Although Horus the Elder and Sobek are the principal gods of the temple, other deities were also worshipped there, such as Amun, Khnum and Ptah.
The region of Kom Ombo was known as "the Great Throne," a reference to the throne on which the goddess Tefnut sat when she visited the place and received the title "Lady of Ombos." The region was mythologically linked with the struggle of the god Re against the goddess Seth (or the god Seth), in which Horus supported Re against Seth. From that time there was Horus the Elder, who helped his father against Seth in order to rule Egypt, and Horus the Younger (Horus the Avenger of his father Osiris against his uncle Seth).
The temple contains many scenes, including the traditional offerings presented by kings and emperors to the gods, certain myths such as the myth of Shu and Tefnut, the struggle of Re, and the union of Horus with Sobek. There are also some religious hymns relating to Horus and Sobek.
There is also the scene representing the goddess Maat dividing the temple equally between the two rival gods Sobek and Hor-Wer, and the scene known as the calendar, which in reality represents a series of festivals and religious occasions that were celebrated in the temples for particular deities on most days of the year.
Temples of Philae
They were located on the island of Philae, a small island in the middle of the Nile River approximately 4 km south of Aswan, and consist of a group of…
… granite rocks of pink colour. In Egyptian texts it was known as “Per-iu-rek” meaning “the place of the frontier and the end,” referring to its position as a boundary between the northern and southern parts of the Nile Valley. It became “Pilak” in Coptic, then “Philae” in Greek, and was known in Arabic literature as “Anas al-Wujud” in connection with a popular folk tale.
Since the completion of the Aswan Dam, the monuments of the island of Philae (the Temples of Isis) have been repeatedly submerged when the Nile water level rose, exposing them to danger. After Egypt decided to build the High Dam it became clear that the Philae temple complex – like other temples and structures of Nubia – would be permanently flooded. Egypt therefore appealed to UNESCO and all the countries of the world to organise a campaign to save the monuments of Nubia. The temples were dismantled and transferred from their original sites to higher locations in order to avoid the rising waters of Lake Nasser. Among them was the group of temples of Isis at Philae, which, after lengthy studies, was decided to be moved to the neighbouring island of Agilkia.
These temples, referred to as the Temples of Isis, provide clear evidence of the growing power and popularity of this goddess, who came to dominate Egyptian religious beliefs in the Late Period and the Greco-Roman period, while her husband Osiris no longer played the prominent role he had throughout ancient Egyptian civilisation.
The earliest known remains in the Philae temple complex date to the reign of King Taharqa of the 25th Dynasty, who built a chapel for Isis around 700 BC. When the temple blocks were dismantled for transfer from Philae Island to Agilkia, stone blocks bearing the names of certain kings of the 26th Dynasty, including Psamtik II and Amasis II, were found in the packing of some of the pylons. Under King Nectanebo I of the 30th Dynasty a chapel was also built dedicated to the worship of the goddess Isis. The process of constructing temples, chapels, gateways and other structures for this goddess and for other deities continued throughout the Greco-Roman period, so that the number of architectural monuments on the island exceeded fifteen.
The Temple of Isis is the principal temple on the island. Construction began under Kings Ptolemy IV, V, VI, VII and XI. The temple consists of the main elements that make up the Egyptian temple of the New Kingdom, with certain minor additions that appeared in the Greco-Roman period. There is also the mammisi (divine birth house), which is the most complete example of this type of temple in Egypt. In addition to the main temple and the birth house there are Trajan’s Kiosk, the Temple of the goddess Hathor, the Temple of Emperor Claudius, the Nilometer, the Hall of Emperor Tiberius, and the Gateway of Diocletian.
The temples of Philae continued to function under Emperor Justinian (527–565 AD) and then ceased activity in 577 AD when the temple was converted into a church. The temples of Philae are distinguished by the fact that they contain the last text written in hieroglyphic script (dated 394 AD) and the last text written in demotic script (dated 480 AD), as well as the unique scene representing the sources of the Nile.
Temple of Hibis
This is the largest temple in the Kharga Oasis. It is located approximately 3 km north of the town of Kharga. The temple bears the name of the Kharga Oasis (Hebet, Hibis). In its plan it follows the layout of the Egyptian temple of the New Kingdom (pylon – open court – hypostyle hall – sanctuary), the same plan that continued to be used for Egyptian temples built in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.
The temple was dedicated to the worship of the Theban triad (Amun, Mut and Khonsu) and the universal triad (Osiris, Isis and Horus), in addition to a large number of other deities.
The earliest beginnings of the temple go back to the 26th Dynasty, when the kings Psamtik, Wahibre (Apries) and Amasis II (Ahmose II) contributed to its construction. Building was continued under the Persian king Darius I (27th Dynasty) and under Kings Nectanebo I and II of the 30th Dynasty.
In the Ptolemaic period King Ptolemy II added the great gateway and the avenue of rams. Under the Roman emperor Galba a gateway was added that contains a text dealing with administrative and economic reforms and certain legal regulations.
In its general framework the temple consists of a quay for receiving boats that carried goods for the temple and its boats, followed by the Roman gateway, then the avenue of rams which in turn leads to another gateway built under Ptolemy II. The lower level of the temple ends with a third gateway on whose walls many scenes are recorded, the most important of which represent the Persian king Darius I presenting offerings to the Theban triad; the temple ends with the sanctuary.
The upper level of the temple was reserved for the worship of the god Osiris, his wife Isis and their son Horus.
Outside the temple there were houses for the priests, store-rooms and the administrative buildings belonging to the temple.
Module Key Takeaways
- Continuity and Evolution: The Ptolemaic and Roman temples preserved the traditional plan and functional role of New Kingdom temples while incorporating new architectural and decorative elements over centuries of construction.
- Unique Religious Significance: Each temple housed distinct triads of deities and featured unparalleled scenes—such as the Dendera Zodiac, Edfu's conflict of Horus and Seth, and Kom Ombo's dual dedication—making them irreplaceable records of Egyptian religious thought.
- Architectural and Textual Treasure: These temples serve as comprehensive repositories of myths, festival calendars, astronomical knowledge, medical prescriptions, and foundation rituals inscribed on their walls in a distinctive artistic style.