Egyptology | Chapter 10: The Obelisks
The Obelisks
The obelisk
The obelisk is considered one of the outstanding symbols of Egyptian civilisation. If the pyramid, for example, is regarded as an engineering and architectural achievement, the obelisk is likewise a distinctive creation when we remember that it is a single piece of pink granite or other stone, and when we consider how it was cut, transported and erected – for some of them still stand tall, confronting all natural and human conditions.
In ancient Egyptian texts the obelisk was known as tekhen; in Greek texts it was called obeliskos; the Europeans called it "Needle," and the Arabs named it masalla. The word masalla is the large needle used in sewing thick cloth (such as the sailcloth of a boat and the like). The term masalla was chosen as an expression of the fact that its tip is pointed like the ancient Egyptian obelisk.
The obelisk is an architectural element with four sides, ending in a pyramidal top that rests on an independent base on which a text may be recorded and which is adorned with statues of baboons that greet the rays of the sun. The four sides of the obelisk are carved with scenes and texts relating to the king who owned it and to the god to whom the obelisk was dedicated.
The Egyptian intended the obelisk to achieve a number of aims. Among them is that it is an aesthetic architectural element standing to the right and left of the temple entrance and appearing to float in space, linking heaven and earth. It is also a commemorative monument that perpetuates the memory of its owner in his relationship with the god to whom the obelisk was dedicated.
Besides what has been mentioned above, the obelisk has a clear religious significance. It is one of the early sacred symbols which, in early history, people may have erected for the god Re at Heliopolis in the form of a simple pillar linking them with this god. This form then developed into a four-sided body ending in a pyramidal top known as the benben.
Some scholars hold that the obelisk symbolises the sun's rays descending from the sky, represented in its pyramidal tip, while others believe that the pyramidal tip of the obelisk plays the same role as the pyramid as a tomb, in that it represents the primeval mound on which creation began.
Certain researchers have linked the obelisk with the god Atum, considering the benben to be a seed of the stone phallus of Atum that fell from him into the primeval ocean – that is, the obelisk symbolises the male organ in the city of Heliopolis.
Other scholars have suggested that the obelisk is nothing other than the conical rock that crowned the primeval mound at Heliopolis, on the summit of which Atum first appeared when he emerged from Nun in the form of the Benu bird (the phoenix).
Still others have linked the obelisk with the god Re, on the grounds that the solar disc (the oldest symbol of the god Re) was depicted on the tip of an obelisk. Pyramid Texts state: "O you who are upon the two benben of Re which are on earth."
In addition to the strong connection between the obelisk and the solar cult, there is also a certain link between the obelisk and the moon. In the myth of Osiris it is related that the completion of the moon (after fourteen days) symbolises the fourteen parts into which the body of Osiris was cut; the crescent was regarded as a symbol of Osiris's leg. It is thought that this leg rests in the "House of the Leg" at Edfu in a coffin that takes the form of an "obelisk," and that Khonsu, the moon god, is the one who protects this obelisk.
As for the history of the use of obelisks in temples and elsewhere, it appears that it began with the beginning of the development of religious thought and the emergence of the solar cult. Although we have not found obelisks before the Fifth Dynasty, this does not mean that they were unknown before that date; they may simply have disappeared through the action of time.
The region of Abusir witnessed the construction of a group of sun temples dedicated by the kings of the Fifth Dynasty to the worship of the sun god. The obelisk was a principal element in these temples in view of the strong relationship of the obelisk to the sun god, as already mentioned. The obelisk was also used as a determinative for the names given to these temples.
Among the clearest proofs of the religious role of the obelisk is the ritual that accompanied the erection of the obelisk, known as the ritual of "Erecting Two Obelisks for the God."
This ritual appeared from the New Kingdom onwards and continued throughout the Pharaonic period and the Greco-Roman periods. We have several examples from the New Kingdom, the most important of which is the scene depicted on the walls of the Red Chapel of Queen Hatshepsut at Karnak, which, together with the accompanying text, shows the erection of two obelisks by this queen for her father, the god Amun, at Karnak. One of these two obelisks still stands complete, while the second has fallen and only part of it remains on the base; a portion of the tip is at the Sacred Lake.
The monuments of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties and the Late Period preserve many of these rituals, as do those of the Greco-Roman periods, especially at Dendera and Edfu.
Material of the Obelisk
The obelisk was carved from stone, especially granite. Pink granite was used for obelisks more than grey granite, and it came from the quarries of Aswan, particularly the eastern quarry.
Some obelisks were carved from quartzite and basalt. Private individuals' obelisks were carved from limestone and sandstone.
The tips of some obelisks were sheathed with sheets of gold or electrum (an alloy of gold and silver), as well as gold and bronze.
Cutting the Obelisk
Despite the importance of the obelisk as an architectural element and a religious symbol, the Egyptian left us no record of how it was cut, how it was transported, or how it was erected. Consequently the obelisk, with everything it represents, remains one of the mysteries of Egyptian civilisation – a mystery that constitutes an element of wonder and miracle in ancient Egyptian civilisation.
The first step – as we imagine it – consisted of commissioning an expedition from the Works Department of the royal palace whose task was to prepare one or more obelisks for the king from a particular type of stone, from a particular quarry, and of specified dimensions. The expedition seems to have consisted of engineers and architects, experts in the earth's crust, in stones and quarries, stonemasons and other supporting personnel.
Although the texts that tell the story of the obelisk have not come down to us, the ancient Egyptian left us an obelisk in situ in the eastern quarry at Aswan, known as the Unfinished Obelisk, which the Egyptian abandoned without completing it.
It is clear that the obelisk cracked at the upper part. The Egyptian attempted to repair this crack, but realised that the repair would not succeed and that it would be impossible to raise the obelisk with all its weight without exposing it to further cracks; he therefore left it in its place. Had this obelisk been completed it would have been one of the largest obelisks ever cut in Egypt, for its height has been estimated at more than 40 metres and its weight at more than 1,000 tons.
The expedition had to roam the quarry that had been chosen for cutting the obelisk and to carry out soundings (excavations of various sizes and depths in the quarry to ensure the soundness of the block that would become the obelisk and its freedom from any defects).
After the site from which the obelisk would be extracted had been chosen, the process of marking out the location of the obelisk according to the required dimensions began by cutting a groove representing its general outline; the stonemasons then levelled the surface of the place from which the obelisk would be extracted.
There are many opinions concerning the method of levelling, which means removing a large amount of surplus stone. Among these opinions is the use of the metal chisels available to the workmen to remove these surplus parts. Another view holds that mud-brick moulds were placed on the surface to be prepared; these moulds were heated, and after they reached a certain temperature water was poured over them with force, causing the excess rock to disintegrate so that it could be easily removed, thus achieving the required smoothness.
The next step consisted of accurately determining the dimensions of the obelisk by means of a rope, using white lime, red ochre or red pigment to mark out the tip of the obelisk.
The workmen then prepared trenches to a depth corresponding to the circumference of the obelisk on all four sides. Wooden wedges (pieces of wood) that may have been moistened were inserted so that the wood expanded, causing a partial separation of the obelisk from the body of the mountain. Alternatively the wooden wedges may have been inserted dry and then set on fire; at a certain temperature water was poured over them with great force, producing the required cracking.
On the other hand, some architects have regarded the achievement of this with moistened wood or by setting fire to it as difficult in view of the hardness of granite.
As for the final separation of the sides of the obelisk, especially the underside, it was considered one of the most delicate stages. The prevailing opinion is that trenches were dug around the obelisk in which a series of parallel vertical circular cuttings were found; heavy balls of diorite were used in them, and by relying on their weight the required separation of the sides of the obelisk could be effected.
With regard to the lower surface of the obelisk, it is thought that circular wooden blocks were placed in the circular trenches at specified intervals and were moistened with water or set on fire as previously mentioned.
The work gangs were divided according to the number of workmen, each gang being assigned a particular task in dealing with the body of the obelisk.
The architect and the engineer followed the progress of the work on a daily basis, identifying the difficulties facing the workmen so that a solution could be found for dealing with them.
As for the length of time required for the process of cutting the obelisk, we possess only the text recorded on the base of one of Queen Hatshepsut's two obelisks, which states that the cutting of the two obelisks (each 30 m high) took seven months. Some researchers, however, consider this period extremely short and believe that the cutting of a single obelisk may have taken more than eight months, taking into account the size of the obelisk, the nature of the stone, the number of workmen engaged in the task, and the number of daily working hours.
Before speaking of the process of transport, I should like to mention a question that presents itself: were the surfaces of the obelisk given their final polishing and the scenes and inscriptions carved while the obelisk was still in its place in the quarry, or was this done after it had been transported to the site where it would be erected?
It is clear that the polishing of the surfaces of the obelisk was carried out while the obelisk was still in the quarry, with the exception of the lower side, unless the obelisk was moved so that the stonemasons could work on that surface. The final touches were applied after the obelisk had been transported to the site of its erection.
As for the accompanying scenes and texts that were recorded on the faces of the obelisk, it appears that they were executed while the obelisk was still in the quarry, and the final touches were then given at the place of its erection. An unfinished obelisk of King Seti I was found in the quarry of Gebel Samaan (west of the Nile at Aswan); nevertheless the scenes and texts had been carved on three of its faces.
On the other hand, some hold that the obelisk was transported from the quarry to the site of its erection as a block of stone; after it had been erected and any scratches that may have been sustained during transport had been polished away, the process of carving the scenes and hieroglyphic texts began.
Module Key Takeaways
- The obelisk served as a multifaceted symbol in ancient Egypt, functioning as an aesthetic architectural element, a commemorative monument, and a deeply significant religious object linked primarily to the solar cult and the primeval mound of creation.
- Crafted mainly from pink granite sourced from Aswan, the process of cutting, transporting, and erecting these massive single-stone monuments remains partially mysterious, exemplified by the abandoned Unfinished Obelisk which would have weighed over 1,000 tons.
- The ritual of "Erecting Two Obelisks for the God," documented from the New Kingdom onwards, underscores their central role in temple worship, with surviving examples like those of Queen Hatshepsut at Karnak providing key archaeological evidence.