Islamic Archaeology | Chapter 6: Evolution of Islamic Artistic Eras
Evolution of Islamic Artistic Eras
Continuation
in artistic production, which led to the appearance of a new Islamic artistic style: the early Abbasid style. The artistic production uncovered by the archaeological excavations that were carried out at Sāmarrāʾ represents it (Figs. 10, 20, 61, 105, 113 and 161). This style matured, and the art of Sāmarrāʾ goes back to the period between 221 and 276 AH / 836–889 AD, which is the period during which Sāmarrāʾ was a centre for the Abbasid caliphate.
The art of Sāmarrāʾ took on an international Islamic character, since it spread in the regions of the Islamic world by virtue of the dominance of the Abbasid caliphate at the beginning of the Abbasid period over the rest of the world with the exception of Andalusia (Figs. 16, 21, 39, 89, 91, 162, 186 and 187).
The Abbasid caliphate, however, did not remain long before weakness overtook it. The various provinces began to become independent of the Abbasid caliphate, and two other caliphates appeared: the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and the Umayyad caliphate in Andalusia. This political independence led to the art in each of these states being distinguished by special characteristics. Local styles thus appeared that had their own particular features, even though a single character and a single spirit united them—the Arab-Islamic spirit.
Regional Styles in Egypt, Andalusia, and the Islamic East
In Egypt, for example, there existed Fatimid art (Figs. 22–25, 33, 71, 73, 106–108, 137, 151, 163–165, 188, 207–209, 212, 231 and 232) during the rule of the Fatimid caliphs (358–567 AH), then the Ayyubid style (Figs. 26, 44, 68, 69, 73, 191, 213 and 214) in the Ayyubid period (567–648 AH), then the Mamluk style (Figs. 27, 28, 45–53, 67, 79, 93, 109, 110, 114, 128, 140, 153, 168, 177–180, 189, 193–199, 205–217 and 227–233) in the period of the Mamluk sultans (648–923 AH).
In Andalusia there existed Andalusian art, which was conventionally called the Western Umayyad style in reference to the Banū Umayya who became independent in the rule of Andalusia in the West after the disappearance of their caliphate in the East (Figs. 11, 18, 19 and 219). This style continued until the fifth century AH; then the Maghribi-Spanish style rose in its wake in the sixth century AH (Fig. 12), and it reached its peak in Granada in the eighth century AH (Fig. 14) (Figs. 97, 111 and 171). Morocco still preserves to this day some of the artistic methods connected with this style.
As for the Islamic East, the Sāmarrāʾ style and what followed it of local styles were replaced by a new art that also had an international character. This is the Saljuq art, so named in reference to the Saljuqs who advanced in Central Asia in the fifth century AH (11th century AD) and were able, together with their followers among the Atabegs, to rule Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria and Asia Minor until about the seventh century AH (13th century AD)¹ (Figs. 54, 78, 170, 174–176 and 181).
It is observed that Ayyubid and Mamluk art can be regarded as developments of Saljuq art.
Artistic Developments in Iran, India, and Asia Minor
In Iran, after the Saljuq style, Iranian styles arose, the first of them being the Mongol style that appeared during the rule of the Ilkhanid dynasties in the eighth century AH (14th century AD) (Figs. 115 and 217), then the Timurid style that flourished during the rule of the Timurids in the ninth century AH (15th century AD) (Figs. 15, 63, 64, 116 and 117), then the Safavid style that continued during the rule of the Safavid dynasty from the tenth century to the twelfth century AH (16th–18th centuries AD) (Figs. 118, 119, 140, 141, 146, 148, 158, 200 and 218). This was followed by Qajar art in the thirteenth century AH (19th century AD), in which European and Indian influences became clear.¹
In India there existed an Indian-Islamic style influenced to a certain extent by the Iranian style and possessing a local Indian character (Figs. 41, 65, 75, 76, 120, 121, 137 and 201).
In Asia Minor, after the Saljuq style, a final artistic style appeared in the period of the Ottoman Turks. This Turkish-Ottoman style spread in the provinces that were subject to the rule of the Ottoman Turks in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and North Africa (Figs. 29–31, 42, 43, 85, 98–103, 132, 133, 138–140, 145, 147, 155–157, 169 and 197).
The Arabian Peninsula and Global Cross-Cultural Influences
As for the Arabian Peninsula, Islamic antiquities were distinguished in it and their methods varied according to periods and places.² At the same time they were subject to the same general artistic current that prevailed in the Islamic world in certain periods, just as the different regions of the Peninsula were influenced by the artistic methods that appeared in the regions with which they had direct contact.
In view of the fact that Muslims from various parts of the world went to the Arabian Peninsula to perform the religious duty of the pilgrimage and to visit the noble Prophetic Mosque, the arts of the Arabian Peninsula were influenced by the various artistic traditions that these people carried. This influence has appeared in its antiquities (Figs. 1, 3–12, 14 and 202–206).
Islamic art was not a stagnant, rigid or isolated art. Rather, its contact with art in the East and the West helped it to preserve its vitality and led to its development. Thanks to the various relations that arose between the Islamic world and the Far East, Islamic art exchanged influence with the arts of the Far East in general and the arts of China in particular (Fig. 154). On the other hand, many circumstances helped the artistic Islamic influences to pass to Europe, so that they contributed to the emergence of some of the European arts.³
The artistic Islamic influences passed to Europe by way of Spain and Sicily (Fig. 220) and the state of the Ottoman Turks in the Balkans and the Archipelago. The Crusades and trade between West and East, and the coming of the Europeans to Palestine for visitation and pilgrimage, also had a great effect on the exchange of artistic elements between the Islamic world and Europe.¹
Islamic art thus entered various fields: the planning of cities, architectural remains, and plastic, ornamental and applied arts. The Muslims excelled in all of these fields.
Module Key Takeaways
- Evolution of Styles: Islamic art transitioned from early Abbasid and Saljuq traditions into distinctive regional styles across Egypt, Andalusia, Iran, India, and the Ottoman Empire.
- Cross-Cultural Exchange: Continuous interaction with China, India, and Europe via trade, pilgrimage, and conquest fostered vibrant artistic vitality.
- Comprehensive Application: Muslim artists and architects excelled across diverse domains including urban city planning, architecture, and applied decorative arts.