Classical Archaeology | Chapter 7: Roman Architecture, Art, and Artifacts
Roman Architecture, Art, and Artifacts
Deities Represented on Greek Coins
Dionysus: Son of Zeus and Semele. God of wine, vegetation, fertility, and theater. Depicted on coins holding a cluster of grapes in one hand and a Kantharos (wine cup) in the other.
Eros: Son of Aphrodite. Depicted as a winged youth or infant playing with a bow and arrows, symbolizing the power of love.
Helios: Sun god described by Homer as driving a four-horse chariot (quadriga) across the sky; depicted as a beardless youth surrounded by a radiating halo.
Arethusa: Freshwater nymph of Syracuse, depicted in profile surrounded by swimming dolphins.
Special Occasions Marked on Coinage
Popular Games and Religious Festivals: Panhellenic games provided unified cultural, religious, and economic ties across the Greek world. Coin minting expanded significantly during festival gatherings to meet commercial demands and issue commemorative currency. Inscriptions explicitly named the festival or location (e.g., Acheloio Aethlon at Metapontum, Olympia at Elis, Ithomaia at Messenia).
Major Panhellenic Games Recorded on Coins
| Games | Location | Honoree & Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| Olympic Games | Pisa/Elis | In honor of Zeus every four years (founded 776 BC). |
| Pythian Games | Delphi | In honor of Apollo Pythios during the third year of each Olympiad. |
| Isthmian Games | Corinth | In honor of Poseidon / Ino-Melikertes every two years. |
| Nemean Games | Cleonae and Nemea/Argos | Every two years in honor of Zeus. |
Deity Festivals & Royal Commemorations
Festivals Honoring Specific Deities:
| Festival | Location | Honoree |
|---|---|---|
| Asclepia | Epidauros and Philadelphia | Asclepius |
| Dionysia | Nicaea and Adana | Dionysus |
| Heraia | Argos | Hera |
| Theogamia | Nysa | Marriage of Hades and Persephone |
| Kabiria | Lacedaemon | Artemis/Kabiroi |
| Lykaia | Megalopolis | Zeus Lykaios |
| Tyrimnaia | Thyatira | Apollo Tyrimnaios |
Royal Commemorative Games: Originated under Alexander the Great; celebrated through royal games (e.g., Alexandreia games in Beroea, Macedonia, inscribed OLYMPIA ALEXANDRIA).
Regional Assemblies and Alliances
Regional Assemblies:
| Assembly | Description |
|---|---|
| Koina | Regional council gatherings in Asia Minor minting shared alliance coins inscribed KOINON. |
| Oikoumenika | Universal games open to contestants across the inhabited Greek world. |
| Panionia | Festival celebrating the Twelve Ionian Cities. |
| Themides | Local prize games in Pamphylia and Cilicia where cash prizes (themis) were awarded. |
City Alliance Coinage
| Alliance Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Political / Federal Alliances | Coins minted by regional confederations (e.g., Boeotian League, Chalcidian League) sharing a unified design style. |
| Commercial Alliances | Agreements among merchant cities to facilitate trade through standardized weight and exchange standards. |
Military and Religious Alliances
Military Alliances (Symmachika Nomismata): Struck by cities bound by mutual defense treaties.
Anti-Spartan Alliance (394 BC): Formed by Ephesus, Samos, Cnidus, Miletus, and Rhodes following Conon's naval victory at Cnidus. Struck silver Tridrachms featuring young Heracles strangling two serpents (SYN) on the obverse and individual city emblems on the reverse.
Religious Alliances: Struck by sanctuary centers for festival distribution (e.g., inscribed OLYMPIKON).
Early Inscriptions: Simple guarantee marks or initial letters (e.g., PHO for Phocaea, Q / Koppa for Corinth).
Evolution of Coin Legends
Genitive Plural Demonym: Civic issues bore the city name in the genitive plural formula (e.g., SYRAKOSION = "of the Syracusans").
Magistrate Names: Names of chief mint magistrates or tyrants appeared on civic issues (e.g., 4th-century BC Boeotian magistrate series).
Religious Inscriptions: Names of prominent sanctuary priests or cult figures.
Artistic Chronology of Greek Coins
Special Victory Inscriptions: Commemorative legends marking athletic or military victories (e.g., Syracusan Dekadrachms inscribed AOΛA / AETHLA for prize armor).
Post-Alexandrian Legends: Shifted to royal titles and monarchical names (e.g., BASILEOS ALEXANDROY, BASILEOS PTOLEMAIOY).
1. Archaic Period (700–480 BC)
Characterized by rigid rendering, sharp linear details, frontal almond eyes on profile heads, and the Archaic smile.
Archaic & Transitional Coin Styles
Archaic Numismatic Features (Continued): Single-sided designs with reverse incuse squares (quadratum incusum). Profile faces (Profile) with frontal eye placement (Frontality). Example: Poseidonia silver stater (c. 525–510 BC) in the British Museum.
2. Transitional Period (480–415 BC): Spanned from the Persian Wars to the Athenian Sicilian Expedition. Incuse square transformed into decorative reverse frames; improved anatomical understanding and fluid positioning. Example: Naxos Tetradrachm (Sicily, c. 460 BC) featuring a bearded Dionysus head on the obverse and a crouching, realistic Silenus holding a kantharos on the reverse.
High Classical & Hellenistic Coin Styles
3. High / Fine Classical Period (415–339 BC): Numismatic art reached its peak: master die-engravers signed their dies (e.g., Kimon and Euainetos in Syracuse, Herakleidas in Catana). Introduced dramatic three-quarter and full-face frontal portraits (Frontality) in high relief (e.g., Apollo head at Rhodes, Arethusa at Syracuse). Panticapaeum Gold Stater (Crimea, c. 350 BC): Features a three-quarter view of a horned Pan/Satyr head with refined anatomical detailing. Hellenistic Transition: Launched realistic royal portraiture across the Mediterranean world following Alexander the Great.
Plates and Figures Section
Figure 1: Map of ancient Greece (Thessaly, Euboea, Attica, Peloponnese, Crete).
Figure 2: Map of Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily) illustrating key minting centers (Syracuse, Tarentum, Metapontum, Poseidonia/Paestum, Croton).
Figure 7: Map of the Hellenistic World (Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire, Antigonid Macedon, Attalid Pergamon, Bactria).
Figure 3: Technical diagram of coin minting tools: Sphyra (hammer), Charakter (upper die), Akmoniskos (anvil die).
Figures 4 & 5: Early pre-monetary bullion, electrum nuggets, and early stamped planchets.
Figures 6 & 7: Pre-monetary trade silver (Hacksilber), silver bars, rings, and weighted ingots.
Figures 8, 9, 10, 11: Early Lydian electrum staters and Archaic silver coins showing incuse punch marks (quadratum incusum) and animal emblems (lion, bull, seal).
Figures 12 & 13: Archaic silver staters from Poseidonia (Poseidon holding trident) and early civic issues.
Figures 14 & 15: Transitional and Classical coins: Naxos Tetradrachm (bearded Dionysus / crouching Silenus) and Catana Tetradrachm signed by Herakleidas (frontal Apollo / quadriga).
Figures 16 & 17: High Classical and Hellenistic masterpieces: Panticapaeum gold stater with three-quarter Satyr head, and Syracuse Dekadrachms by Kimon/Euainetos.
This concludes Chapter 1 (Greek Arts).
Introduction to Roman Arts
Prehistoric Origins: Around the 10th century BC, Indo-European Aryan tribes (Sabines and Latins) settled in Italy, founding the Terramare Bronze Age culture.
Etruscan Migration: In the 9th century BC, the Etruscans migrated by sea from Asia Minor to Tuscany, bringing Eastern and early Greek artistic traditions and religious beliefs.
Founding of Rome (753 BC): According to tradition, Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus (descendants of Aeneas of Troy).
Three Historical Eras of Rome
| Era | Period |
|---|---|
| Monarchical Period | 753–509 BC |
| Republican Period | 509–31 BC |
| Imperial Period | 31 BC–476 AD (Fall of Western Rome) |
Characteristics & Factors Influencing Roman Art
General Nature: The Romans were pragmatic soldiers, administrators, and engineers. Their art emphasized power, realism, civic utility, and monumental scale.
1. Geographical Aspect: Central position of the Italian peninsula in the Mediterranean basin. Control over sea lanes allowed Rome to connect Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Expansion led to the conquest of Greece; Greek sculptors and architects were brought to Rome to design public state monuments.
Geological & Climatic Aspects
Geological Materials: Rich local stone reserves: Carrara marble (Marmory Lunense), tufa, travertine, and lime. Invention of Roman Concrete (Opus Caementicium): Mixed volcanic ash (pozzolana) with lime, sand, and stone rubble. Concrete allowed Romans to construct massive unreinforced domes, barrel vaults, groin vaults, and arches impossible with traditional post-and-lintel stone masonry. Marble was used primarily as exterior decorative facing slabs over brick-faced concrete cores.
Climatic Aspect: Varied climate—Alpine cold in northern Italy versus warm, sunny Mediterranean weather in central/southern regions—dictated regional architectural adaptations.
Religious, Social, and Historical Aspects
Religious Aspect: Roman priests did not form a separate political caste like in Egypt. Domestic shrines (lararia) existed in every household, while public temples honored civic state gods (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva) and deified emperors.
Social Aspect: Reverence for ancestral tradition (mos maiorum), civic duty, and state leadership. Public works (baths, forums, basilicas, theaters) were built to serve and glorify the Roman public.
Historical Aspect: Key milestones: Overthrow of Etruscan kings (509 BC), Punic Wars against Carthage (264–146 BC), annexation of Greece (146 BC), and conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt (30 BC).
Early Roman & Etruscan Architecture (1500–509 BC)
Early Housing: Simple wattle-and-daub circular huts and rock-cut shelters.
Etruscan Rule (1000–509 BC): Introduced the true stone arch, barrel vaulting, and elevated podium temples.
Tuscan Order: Simplified version of the Doric order featuring a smooth, unfluted shaft, a distinct base, and a plain capital.
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Capitoline Hill): Built by Etruscan craftsmen (Vulca of Veii) with a high podium, triple cella for the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva), and painted terracotta roof statues.
Etruscan Sculpture & Funerary Art
Sculpture: Cast bronze statues (e.g., Capitoline Wolf) and painted terracotta cult figures.
Funerary Sarcophagi: Terracotta sarcophagi featuring reclining, realistic portrait sculptures of husband and wife on the lid (Sarcophagus of the Spouses).
Tomb Painting: Frescoes depicting banquets, athletic contests, musicians, and funeral games incorporating early foreshortening and depth.
Roman Column Orders
Roman architects adopted the three Greek orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) and added two new orders: Tuscan and Composite.
| Order | Features |
|---|---|
| 1. Tuscan Order | Unfluted smooth shaft, circular base, simple capital, and unadorned entablature. |
| 2. Roman Doric Order | Added a distinct base (unlike the base-less Greek Doric), a slenderer shaft, and a refined necking ring. Used extensively on exterior arcades (e.g., lower tier of the Colosseum). |
Roman Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders
| Order | Features |
|---|---|
| 3. Roman Ionic Order | Features a straight horizontal volute band connecting double scrolls and 24 deep flutes separated by flat fillets. |
| 4. Roman Corinthian Order | The favorite order of Roman imperial architecture. Bell-shaped capital adorned with two rows of acanthus leaves and corner volutes (caulicoli), conveying grandeur and richness. |
| 5. Composite Order | Invented by Roman architects by combining the large corner volutes of the Ionic capital with the dual acanthus leaf rows of the Corinthian capital. Used on triumphal arches (e.g., Arch of Titus) and imperial baths. |
Public Forums
Function: The civic, commercial, political, and judicial center of a Roman city (analogous to the Greek Agora).
Layout: Rectangular open plaza enclosed by columned porticoes, temples, basilicas, shops, and speaker platforms (rostra).
Evolution of Roman Forums
Forum Romanum: Original civic heart of Rome containing the Curia (Senate House), Rostra (orator's podium), and major basilicas.
Specialized Markets: Commercial livestock and produce trade was moved to specialized forums (e.g., Forum Boarium for cattle).
Imperial Forums: Forum of Julius Caesar (Forum Julium, 46 BC): Rectangular plaza framed by double porticoes, shops, and a temple dedicated to Venus Genetrix.
The Forum of Trajan
Designed by the master architect Apollodorus of Damascus (107–113 AD).
Components: Grand columned courtyard with an equestrian statue of Trajan at the center. Basilica Ulpia: Monumental civic hall (159m x 55m) supported by 208 granite Corinthian columns. Trajan's Column: 38-meter spiral relief column depicting Trajan's Dacian Wars, set between twin Greek and Latin libraries. Trajan's Market: Multi-story semi-circular brick commercial complex built into the Quirinal Hill.
Roman Temples
Etruscan-Roman Design Features: Built on a high raised platform (Podium) accessible only via a single frontal staircase facing an open plaza. Deep Portico: Deep frontal porch featuring free-standing columns. Pseudoperipteral Layout: Instead of a free-standing outer colonnade surrounding all four sides (Greek style), Romans attached half-columns (engaged columns) directly into the exterior cella walls.
Structural Principles of Roman Temples
Directional Focus: Emphasized a single frontal axis (front entrance and porch) rather than four-sided Greek peripteral symmetry.
Interior Space: Cella occupied the full width of the podium, maximizing internal space for cult statues and treasures.
Layout Types: Rectangular temples and Circular temples (Tholos).
Rectangular Temple Examples
| Temple | Location & Date | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Maison Carrée | Nîmes, France, late 1st Century BC | Best-preserved Roman rectangular temple. Features a high podium, hexastyle Corinthian portico, and pseudoperipteral engaged columns framing the cella walls. |
| Temple of Portunus | Forum Boarium, Rome, late 2nd Century BC | Ionic order, high travertine podium, deep porch, and pseudoperipteral engaged columns around a tufa cella. |
Circular Temple Examples
| Temple | Location | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Temple of Vesta | Roman Forum | Circular cella surrounded by 20 Corinthian columns housing the sacred eternal hearth fire tended by the Vestal Virgins. |
| Temple of Hercules Victor | Forum Boarium, Rome, late 2nd Century BC | Round marble temple surrounded by a peristyle of 20 Corinthian columns resting on a stepped ring base. |
The Pantheon in Rome
Rebuilt under Emperor Hadrian (118–125 AD) on the site of Marcus Agrippa's earlier temple. Dedicated to all the gods.
Architecture: Combines a traditional octastyle Corinthian portico with a revolutionary circular concrete rotunda.
The Concrete Dome: Unreinforced concrete dome spanning 43.3 meters (142 ft) in diameter and height. Features a central light opening (Oculus, 9m wide) and five rings of 28 recessed coffers (lacunaria) to reduce ceiling weight.
Engineering Marvel of the Pantheon
Walls: 6-meter thick brick-faced concrete walls incorporating internal relieving arches, chambers, and alternating semi-circular and rectangular niches.
Materials Gradation: Aggregate used in the concrete was graded from heavy basalt at the base, to tufa in the middle, to lightweight porous pumice at the dome apex.
Interior: Polychrome marble floor paving and wall facings housing statues of the gods.
Basilicas
Function: Large covered public buildings used as law courts, judicial tribunals, stock exchanges, and financial administrative centers.
Standard Floor Plan: Rectangular central hall (Nave) flanked by lower side aisles separated by colonnades. One or two semi-circular terminal recesses (Apse) housing the magistrate's tribunal seat. Clerestory: Upper wall elevation containing high windows to illuminate the central nave.
Famous Roman Basilicas
| Basilica | Location | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Basilica Julia | Roman Forum | Begun by Julius Caesar, completed by Augustus. Featured two-story arcaded aisles around a marble nave. |
| Basilica Ulpia | Forum of Trajan | Double side aisles, two terminal apses, and a timber roof structure. |
| Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine | 308–312 AD | Monumental concrete vaulting masterpiece. Featured three massive groin-vaulted central bays rising 35 meters, flanked by barrel-vaulted side bays. Formed the structural prototype for early Christian basilicas. |
Module Key Takeaways
- Greek coins evolved from simple stamped metal into sophisticated political and artistic documents recording deities, Panhellenic games, festivals, city alliances, military treaties, and the signatures of master die-engravers across the Archaic, Transitional, Classical, and Hellenistic periods.
- Roman art and architecture emphasized power, realism, and monumental civic utility, driven by engineering innovations such as concrete (opus caementicium), the true arch, barrel vaults, groin vaults, and the unreinforced dome, exemplified supremely by the Pantheon in Rome.
- Roman architectural typology—forums, temples, basilicas, theaters, baths, triumphal arches, and amphitheaters—established standardized building forms that served the administrative, judicial, religious, and social needs of the empire while projecting imperial authority across the Mediterranean world.