Classical Archaeology | Chapter 02: Greek Architectural Orders and Temple Design
Greek Architectural Orders and Temple Design
Examples and Distribution of the Doric Order
Regional Variations: As seen in examples from Delphi and the Temple of Athena (c. 600 BC), Doric capital shapes evolved over time, starting with smaller capital proportions relative to the massive column shaft.
Geographical Spread: The Doric order was predominantly used in southern mainland Greece and the western Greek colonies in Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) and Sicily. Aside from an early temple at Assos in the Troad, the Doric order was rarely used in eastern Greek territories, where the Ionic order was preferred.
The Ionic Order
Characteristics: More decorative, varied, and expressive than the Doric order. Regional schools in Ionia established distinct sub-types. Unlike the base-less Doric column, the Ionic column rests on a molded stone base featuring horizontal decorative channels. The shaft features 24 deep vertical flutes separated by flat fillets (rather than sharp edges). Slender proportions: Column height-to-diameter ratio in the Classical period was 1:8 or 1:10 (compared to 1:5 or 1:6 in Doric).
Ionic Capital
Consists of an Echinus decorated with egg-and-dart motifs, topped by volutes (spiral scrolls) on two sides, connected to the architrave via a thin Abacus. Unlike Doric capitals which look identical from all sides, Ionic capitals have distinct front and side faces.
Ionic Entablature & Regional Spread
Architrave: Divided horizontally into three stepped bands (fasciae). Frieze: Features a continuous, uninterrupted running relief band suitable for depicting long narrative stories (unlike the Doric frieze divided into triglyphs and metopes).
Regional Variants: Ephesus (Temple of Artemis): Rosettes integrated near the volute scrolls. Samos: Simplified entablature directly above the capital. Athens: Appeared in the late 6th century BC and mid-5th century BC (e.g., Propylaea), featuring large rosettes within capital scrolls. Bassae (Temple of Apollo): Late 5th-century BC variant with inward-curving corner volutes.
The Corinthian Order
Origins & Features: Credited to the sculptor Callimachus. Features four-sided symmetry, making it uniform and visually appealing from all angles. Earliest known example: Temple of Apollo at Bassae (second half of the 5th century BC). Shaped like an inverted bell surrounded by Acanthus leaves ending in small corner scrolls (caulicoli). Developed elaborate floral carving throughout the 4th century BC and Hellenistic period (e.g., Tegea, Tholos at Epidauros, and Didyma).
The Aeolic Order
Concentrated in northern Asia Minor (e.g., Neandria, Larissa, c. 580–570 BC). Characterized by twin vertical volutes springing directly from the shaft with central palmette motifs. Precursor to or contemporary variant of the Ionic capital.
Evolution of the Greek Temple
Early Phase: Simple stone structures housing the god's statue facing an outdoor altar. Statue Evolution: Statues evolved from simple wooden/stone representations (xoana) into grand chryselephantine (gold and ivory) monuments created by master sculptors. Orientation: Typically faced east, though terrain (mountains, rivers) occasionally dictated western orientations. Prehistoric Roots: Evolved from the Bronze Age Megaron house layout—a rectangular hall fronted by a columned porch.
Standard Temple Layout Features
Platform (Stylobate): Raised multi-stepped stone base. Peristyle: Outer colonnade enclosing the building (single or double row). Pronaos: Front entrance porch framed by side walls (antae) and central columns. Naos / Cella: Main inner chamber housing the primary cult statue. Opisthodomos: Rear chamber accessible from the back porch, used for storing votive offerings, treasures, and state reserves.
Doric Temples (Archaic to 5th Century BC)
Temple of Apollo at Thermos (Etruria): One of the oldest preserved temples; lacked a pronaos and was divided down the center by a single row of columns. Temple of Hera at Olympia (c. 600 BC; 6x16 columns): Replaced the central colonnade with two internal rows of columns along the cella walls. Temple of Apollo at Corinth (c. 540 BC; 6x15 columns): Featured a four-column interior chamber for the cult statue accessible from the rear. Temple of Aphaia at Aegina (early 5th century BC; 6x12 columns): Introduced a two-story interior colonnade inside the cella.
Classical Doric Developments
Two-story interior colonnades became standard in major Classical temples (e.g., Temple of Zeus at Olympia). Temple of Apollo at Bassae (Phigaleia): Designed by Iktinos (co-architect of the Parthenon). Featured engaged Ionic half-columns along the cella walls and a single central Corinthian column—the earliest known use of the Corinthian order in Greek architecture. Included a unique eastern side doorway to illuminate the cult statue displaced by the central column.
The Parthenon
Overview: Built on the Athenian Acropolis (447–432 BC) during the Age of Pericles. Dedicated to Athena Parthenos ("The Virgin"). Designed by architects Iktinos and Kallikrates under the artistic supervision of the sculptor Phidias. Dimensions & Plan: 31.7 m wide, octastyle arrangement (8x17 Doric columns; 46 external columns total). Constructed entirely of Pentelic marble.
Optical Refinements & Architectural Innovations
| Refinement Technique | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Entasis & Tapering | Upper column diameter tapered to 2/3 of the base diameter to prevent a top-heavy appearance. |
| Thicker Corner Columns | Made slightly thicker to counteract optical thinning against the bright sky. |
| Reduced Corner Intercolumniation | Corner spacing reduced by ~24 inches to create proportional harmony. |
| Inward Tilt of Columns | Columns inclined slightly inward to create a sense of stability. |
| Metope Adjustments | Central metopes made larger to maintain visual balance. |
| Pediment Slope at 13.5 Degrees | Prevented cornices from casting deep shadows on pedimental sculptures. |
Parthenon Interior & Sculptural Decoration
Layout: Cella housed the 12-meter tall chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue of Athena Parthenos sculpted by Phidias. Opisthodomos served as a rear treasury chamber supported by four interior Ionic columns. Sculptural Program: Metopes illustrated mythic battles (Gigantomachy, Lapiths vs. Centaurs, Amazonomachy, Trojan War). A continuous 160-meter Ionic frieze depicted the Panathenaic procession. Pediments represented the Birth of Athena (East) and the Contest between Athena and Poseidon (West).
Ionic Temples (Up to the 5th Century BC)
Characteristics: More elaborate and decorative than Doric temples, concentrated in Ionia and East Greece. Heraion of Samos (Temple III): Designed by Theodoros and Rhoikos (mid-6th century BC). Monumental scale (105m x 52m; 8/10 x 21 columns). Introduced the Dipteral (double colonnade) layout. Heraion of Samos (Temple IV): Outer colonnade of 56 columns and inner colonnade of 48 columns (8x19). Divided into three aisles by two interior column rows.
Famous Ionic Temples
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: Designed by Chresiphron and Theodoros (115m x 55m). Dipteral layout facing west (8x21 outer columns). Columns featured relief sculptures carved around their lower drums (columnae caelatae). The Erechtheion (Acropolis, Athens, 421–406 BC): Asymmetrical, multi-level Ionic structure built on uneven ground. Porch of the Maidens (Caryatides): Southern porch supported by six draped female statues serving as structural columns, standing on a raised parapet.
Temples in the Classical and Hellenistic Eras
Hellenistic Trends: Shift toward grand scale, lavish ornamentation, and preference for Ionic and Corinthian styles over Doric. Rebuilding of older Archaic temples with heightened decorative details. Key Examples: Temple of Athena at Tegea (4th Century BC): Traditional exterior plan with interior wall-engaged Corinthian capitals. Rebuilt Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (Hellenistic): Reconstructed on a higher podium following a fire, retaining life-sized relief carvings on lower column shafts. Temple of Apollo at Didyma (near Miletus, c. 310 BC): Massive dipteral Ionic temple (109m x 51m; 10x21 columns).
Layout of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma
A double row of external Ionic columns encloses an open-air courtyard cella surrounded by pilasters. A small interior Ionic shrine (naiskos) with a four-column facade stands inside the open courtyard. An antechamber between the entrance portico and courtyard features two central columns and grand stone staircases leading down into the sunken interior cella.
Altars
Significance: The altar was the primary focus of Greek sacrificial ritual, often pre-dating temple structures. Placement & Forms: Located outdoors east of the temple entrance. Simple raised stone hearths for Olympian gods; sacrificial pits (bothroi) for chthonic deities. Monumental Altars: Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon (c. 180–159 BC): Standalone horseshoe-shaped structure (36m wide) surrounded by an Ionic colonnade. Features a 110-meter frieze depicting the Gigantomachy. Altar of Hieron II at Syracuse: 200 meters long, built to sacrifice up to 400 bulls simultaneously. Telesterion at Eleusis: Specialized initiation hall for the Eleusinian Mysteries of Demeter and Kore. Large square hall with surrounding stepped seating for initiates and internal rows of columns (redesigned by Pericles/Iktinos and expanded in the 4th century BC to 42 interior columns).
Module Key Takeaways
- Three Classical Orders: Doric (sturdy, plain, base-less), Ionic (slender, volute capitals, continuous frieze), and Corinthian (acanthus leaves, four-sided symmetry) defined Greek temple architecture, each with distinct regional origins and proportional systems.
- Temple as Divine House: The Greek temple evolved from the Mycenaean Megaron into a standardized layout (peristyle, pronaos, naos, opisthodomos) designed to house the cult statue, with the altar remaining the primary focus of outdoor ritual sacrifice.
- The Parthenon as Pinnacle: Iktinos and Kallikrates' Parthenon (447–432 BC) represents the apex of Doric architecture, incorporating sophisticated optical refinements (entasis, inclined columns, adjusted intercolumniation) and an integrated sculptural program overseen by Phidias.